Current issue

The Korean Society for Journalism & Communication Studies - Vol. 68 , No. 1

[ Article ]
Korean Journal of Journalism & Communication Studies - Vol. 65, No. 5, pp. 367-401
Abbreviation: KSJCS
ISSN: 2586-7369 (Online)
Print publication date 31 Oct 2021
Received 11 Jun 2021 Accepted 15 Sep 2021 Revised 28 Sep 2021
https://doi.org/10.20879/kjjcs.2021.65.5.010

사회성 능력이 인공지능 챗봇의 사회적 사용과 자기노출에 미치는 영향 : 사용자의 외로움 정도와 챗봇에 대한 지각된 인간다움의 매개효과
박남기** ; 김윤경*** ; 장은채**** ; 이주연***** ; 최어진******
**연세대학교 언론홍보영상학부 교수 (npark@yonsei.ac.kr)
***연세대학교 언론홍보영상학부 강사 (yoonkyoung15@gmail.com)
****연세대학교 일반대학원 언론홍보영상학과 석사 (eunchaej93@gmail.com)
*****연세대학교 일반대학원 언론홍보영상학과 박사과정 (juyeonlee1@gmail.com)
******연세대학교 일반대학원 언론홍보영상학과 석사과정 (eujin2219@gmail.com)

Effects of Social Competence on Social Use of AI Chatbots and Self-Disclosure : Mediation Effects of Loneliness and Perceived Humanlikeness of AI Chatbots
Namkee Park** ; Yoonkyoung Kim*** ; Eunchae Jang**** ; Juyeon Lee***** ; Eojin Choi******
**Professor, Department of Communication, Yonsei University, first author (npark@yonsei.ac.kr)
***Instructor, Department of Communication, Yonsei University, corresponding author (yoonkyoung15@gmail.com)
****M.A., Department of Communication, Yonsei University (eunchaej93@gmail.com)
*****Doctoral student, Department of Communication, Yonsei University (juyeonlee1@gmail.com)
******M.A. student, Department of Communication, Yonsei University (eujin2219@gmail.com)
Funding Information ▼

초록

본 연구는 개인의 사회성 능력이 외로움 정도와 인공지능(AI) 챗봇에 대한 지각된 인간다움을 거쳐 AI 챗봇의 사회적 사용 및 AI에의 자기노출에 미치는 영향을 살펴보았다. 본 연구는 총 645명의 인공지능 이용자를 대상으로 온라인 서베이를 통해 외로움의 매개효과, AI 챗봇에 대한 지각된 인간다움의 매개효과, 그리고 두 매개변인을 차례로 경유하는 직렬 매개효과를 검증하였다. 분석결과, 사회성 능력은 챗봇의 사회적 사용에 긍정적인 효과를 미치며, 이는 사회성 능력이 좋을수록 챗봇을 사회적 목적으로 사용할 가능성이 높다는 것을 의미한다. 또한, 사회성 능력이 자기노출에 미치는 직접효과는 유의하지 않았지만, 챗봇의 지각된 인간다움을 경유한 매개효과는 유의미했으며, 외로움과 지각된 인간다움을 차례로 경유하여 자기노출에 영향을 미치는 직렬 매개효과도 유의미한 것으로 나타났다. 본 연구는 개인적 특성인 사회성 능력에 주목하여 AI 챗봇의 사회적 사용 및 자기노출 간의 관계를 이론적 모델을 통해 살펴본 데 의의가 있다. 또한 AI 챗봇에 대한 지각된 인간다움이 챗봇 이용행태에 미치는 긍정적 효과를 확인함으로써 AI 챗봇 개발 실무자에게도 유용한 시사점을 제공할 수 있을 것으로 기대된다.

Abstract

The present study examined the effects of social competence on the social use of artificial intelligence (AI) chatbots and self-disclosure to chatbots, highlighting the mediating roles of loneliness and perceived Humanlikeness of chatbots. An online survey was conducted with a total of 645 participants who had used AI chatbots. Results showed that people who possessed a high level of social competence tended to use AI chatbots more socially, and this association was mediated by chatbot users' loneliness and perceived humanlikeness of chatbots, in such order (serial mediation effect). As for self-disclosure to chatbots, the effect of social competence on self-disclosure was not significant. However, the mediation effect through perceived humanlikeness and the serial mediation effect through loneliness and perceived humanlikeness were significant. Specifically, people who possessed a high level of social competence felt less loneliness, but the low level of loneliness increased perceived humanlikeness toward chatbots, which in turn led to more social use of chatbots as well as more self-disclosure to chatbots. The study has both theoretical and practical implications. The study sheds light on the effects of social competence in the context of human-AI interaction, supporting the computers as social actors (CASA) perspective. Further, the positive effect of perceived humanlikeness of chatbots offers practical implications for AI chatbot developers. Limitations and suggestions for future studies are discussed.


Keywordssocial competence, loneliness, perceived humanlikeness, social use of AI chatbots, self-disclosure
키워드: 사회성 능력, 외로움, 지각된 인간다움, AI의 사회적 사용, 자기노출

Acknowledgments

This work was supported by the Ministry of Education of the Republic of Korea and the National Research Foundation of the Republic of Korea (NRF-2017S1A5A8022666). 본 논문은 2017년 대한민국 교육부와 한국연구재단의 지원을 받아 수행된 연구임(NRF-2017S1A5A8022666).


References
1. Al-Saggaf, Y., & Nielsen, S. (2014). Self-disclosure on Facebook among female users and its relationship to feelings of loneliness. Computers in Human Behavior, 36, 460-468.
2. Altman, I., & Taylor, D. A. (1973). Social penetration: The development of interpersonal relationships. New York: Holt, Rinehart & Winston.
3. Archer, R. L. (1980). Self-disclosure. In D. M. Wegner & R. Vallacher (Eds.), The self in social psychology (pp. 183-205). Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press.
4. Baym, N. K., Zhang, Y. B., & Lin, M. C. (2004). Social interactions across media: Interpersonal communication on the Internet, telephone and face-to-face. New Media & Society, 6(3), 299-318.
5. Beattie, A., Edwards, A. P., & Edwards, C. (2020). A bot and a smile: Interpersonal impressions of chatbots and humans using emoji in computer-mediated communication. Communication Studies, 71(3), 409-427.
6. Berg, J. H., & Peplau, L. A. (1982). Loneliness: The relationship of self-disclosure and androgyny. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 8(4), 624-630.
7. Bickmore, T. W., Caruso, L., Clough-Gorr, K., & Heeren, T. (2005). ‘It’s just like you talk to a friend’ relational agents for older adults. Interacting with Computers, 17(6), 711-735.
8. Bonetti, L., Campbell, M. A., & Gilmore, L. (2010). The relationship of loneliness and social anxiety with children's and adolescents' online communication. Cyberpsychology, Behavior, and Social Networking, 13(3), 279-285.
9. Buhrmester, D., Furman, W., Wittenberg, M. T., & Reis, H. T. (1988). Five domains of interpersonal competence in peer relationships. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 55, 991–1008.
10. Byun, Sung Hyuk, & Cho, Chang-Hoan (2020). The effect of the anthropomorphism level and personalization level on AI financial chatbot recommendation messages on customer response. Korean Journal of Advertising and Public Relations, 22(2), 466-502.
11. Chelune, G. J., Sultan, F. E., & Williams, C. L. (1980). Loneliness, self-disclosure, and interpersonal effectiveness. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 27(5), 462-468.
12. Chen, S. C., Moyle, W., Jones, C., & Petsky, H. (2020). A social robot intervention on depression, loneliness, and quality of life for Taiwanese older adults in long-term care. International Psychogeriatrics, 32(8), 981-991.
13. Chung, Boo-man, Min, Sung-jun, Lee, Yong-han, & Han, Yu-jeong (2020). Internet usage survey of Korea 2019. Sejong, South Korea: Ministry of Science and ICT.
14. De Melo, C. M., Carnevale, P., & Gratch, J. (2011, May). The effect of expression of anger and happiness in computer agents on negotiations with humans. Proceedings of the 10th International Conference on Autonomous Agents and Multiagent Systems-Volume 3, (pp. 937-944). Taipei, Taiwan.
15. Demeure, V., Niewiadomski, R., & Pelachaud, C. (2011). How is believability of a virtual agent related to warmth, competence, personification, and embodiment?. Presence: Teleoperators and Virtual Environments, 20(5), 431-448.
16. Derlega, V. J., & Chaikin, A. L. (1976). Norms affecting self-disclosure in men and women. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 44(3), 376-380.
17. Derlega, V. J., Winstead, B. A., & Greene, K. (2008). Self-disclosure and starting a close relationship. In S. Sprecher, A. Wenzel, & J. Harvey (Eds.), Handbook of relationship initiation (pp. 153–174). New York: Psychology Press.
18. DiTommaso, E., Brannen-McNulty, C., Ross, L., & Burgess, M. (2003). Attachment styles, social skills and loneliness in young adults. Personality and Individual Differences, 35(2), 303-312.
19. Dominick, J. R. (1999). Who do you think you are?: Personal home pages and self-presentation on the World Wide Web. Journalism and Mass Communication Quarterly, 76(4), 646-658.
20. Duck, S. (1989). Socially competent communication and relationship development. In B. H. Schneider, G. Attili, J. Nadel & R. P. Weissberg (Eds.), Social competence in developmental perspective (pp. 91-106). Berlin, Germany: Springer.
21. Edwards, C., Beattie, A. J., Edwards, A., & Spence, P. R. (2016). Differences in perceptions of communication quality between a Twitterbot and human agent for information seeking and learning. Computers in Human Behavior, 65, 666-671.
22. Epley, N., Waytz, A., & Cacioppo, J. T. (2007). On seeing human: A three-factor theory of anthropomorphism. Psychological Review, 114(4), 864-886.
23. Ernst, J. M., & Cacioppo, J. T. (1999). Lonely hearts: Psychological perspectives on loneliness. Applied and Preventive Psychology, 8(1), 1-22.
24. Eyssel, F., & Reich, N. (2013, March). Loneliness makes the heart grow fonder (of robots): On the effects of loneliness on psychological anthropomorphism. Proceedings of the 8th ACM/IEEE International Conference on Human-Robot Interaction (pp. 121-122). Tokyo, Japan.
25. Fitzpatrick, K. K., Darcy, A., & Vierhile, M. (2017). Delivering cognitive behavior therapy to young adults with symptoms of depression and anxiety using a fully automated conversational agent (Woebot): A randomized controlled trial. JMIR Mental Health, 4(2), e19.
26. Flora, J., & Segrin, C. (1999). Social skills are associated with satisfaction in close relationships. Psychological Reports, 84, 803–804.
27. Gambino, A., Fox, J., & Ratan, R. A. (2020). Building a stronger CASA: Extending the computers are social actors paradigm. Human-Machine Communication, 1(1), 71-86.
28. Gibbs, J. L., Ellison, N. B., & Heino, R. D. (2006). Self-presentation in online personals: The role of anticipated future interaction, self-disclosure, and perceived success in Internet dating. Communication Research, 33(2), 152-177.
29. Go, E., & Sundar, S. S. (2019). Humanizing chatbots: The effects of visual, identity and conversational cues on humanness perceptions. Computers in Human Behavior, 97, 304-316.
30. Goldsmith, R. E., & Hofacker, C. F. (1991). Measuring consumer innovativeness. Journal of the Academy of Marketing Science, 19(3), 209-221.
31. Gong, L., & Nass, C. (2007). When a talking-face computer agent is half-human and half-humanoid: Human identity and consistency preference. Human Communication Research, 33(2), 163-193.
32. Greco, L. A., & Morris, T. L. (2005). Factors influencing the link between social anxiety and peer acceptance: Contributions of social skills and close friendships during middle childhood. Behavior Therapy, 36(2), 197-205.
33. Hayes, A. F. (2013). Introduction to mediation, moderation, and conditional process analysis: Methodology in the social sciences. New York: Guilford Publications.
34. Ho, A., Hancock, J., & Miner, A. S. (2018). Psychological, relational, and emotional effects of self-disclosure after conversations with a chatbot. Journal of Communication, 68(4), 712-733.
35. Jackson, T., Fritch, A., Nagasaka, T., & Gunderson, J. (2002). Towards explaining the association between shyness and loneliness: A path analysis with American college students. Social Behavior and Personality, 30, 263-270.
36. Jang, Ji Hye & Ju, Da Young (2019). Usability test of emotional speech from AI speaker. HCI Society of Korea, 705-712.
37. Jones, W. H., Hobbs, S. A., & Hockenbury, D. (1982). Loneliness and social skill deficits. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 42(4), 682-689.
38. Kim, H. S., & Sundar, S. S. (2011). Using interface cues in online health community boards to change impressions and encourage user contribution. Proceedings of the SIGCHI Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems (pp. 599-608), New York: ACM Press.
39. Kim, Y., & Sundar, S. S. (2012). Anthropomorphism of computers: Is it mindful or mindless?. Computers in Human Behavior, 28(1), 241-250.
40. LaRose, R., & Eastin, M. S. (2004). A social cognitive theory of Internet uses and gratifications: Toward a new model of media attendance. Journal of Broadcasting & Electronic Media, 48(3), 358-377.
41. Lee, K. M., Jung, Y., Kim, J., & Kim, S. R. (2006). Are physically embodied social agents better than disembodied social agents?: The effects of physical embodiment, tactile interaction, and people's loneliness in human–robot interaction. International Journal of Human-Computer Studies, 64(10), 962-973.
42. Lee, K. M., Park, N., & Song, H. (2005). Can a robot be perceived as a developing creature?: Effects of a robot's long‐term cognitive developments on its social presence and people's social responses toward it. Human Communication Research, 31(4), 538-563.
43. Lee, S. A., & Liang, Y. J. (2019). Robotic foot-in-the-door: Using sequential-request persuasive strategies in human-robot interaction. Computers in Human Behavior, 90, 351-356.
44. Lee, Y. C., Yamashita, N., Huang, Y., & Fu, W. (2020, April). "I hear you, I feel you": Encouraging deep self-disclosure through a chatbot. Proceedings of the 2020 CHI Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems (pp. 1-12). Honolulu, HI.
45. Li, S., Xu, L., Yu, F., & Peng, K. (2020, March). Does trait loneliness predict rejection of social robots?: The role of reduced attributions of unique humanness (Exploring the effect of trait loneliness on anthropomorphism and acceptance of social robots). Proceedings of the 2020 ACM/IEEE International Conference on Human-Robot Interaction (pp. 271-280). New Jersey: IEEE.
46. Libet, J. M., & Lewinsohn, P. M. (1973). Concept of social skill with special reference to the behavior of depressed persons. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 40(2), 304-312.
47. Liu, D., & Brown, B. B. (2014). Self-disclosure on social networking sites, positive feedback, and social capital among Chinese college students. Computers in Human Behavior, 38, 213-219.
48. Liu, B., & Sundar, S. S. (2018). Should machines express sympathy and empathy?: Experiments with a health advice chatbot. Cyberpsychology, Behavior, and Social Networking, 21(10), 625-636.
49. Merrell, K. W. (1999). Behavioral, social, and emotional assessment of children and adolescents (Ed.). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
50. Moon, Y. (1998). When the computer is the "salesperson": Consumer responses to computer "personalities" in interactive marketing situations. Cambridge, MA: Harvard Business School Press.
51. Na, Eun-Yeong (2013). Twitter users’ online self-disclosure: Impacts of risk reduction and benefit expectancy. Korean Society for Journalism and Communication Studies, 57(4), 124-148.
52. Nass, C., & Moon, Y. (2000). Machines and mindlessness: Social responses to computers. Journal of Social Issues, 56(1), 81-103.
53. Park, Hyeong-Kon (2019). Business application and deployment of AI. Industry Focus. Retrieved 5/28/2021 from https://www2.deloitte.com/content/dam/Deloitte/kr/Documents/technology-media-telecommunications/2019/kr_tmt_issue-highlights_20190625.pdf
54. Park, N., Jang, K., Cho, S., & Choi, J. (2021). Use of offensive language in human-artificial intelligence chatbot interaction: The effects of ethical ideology, social competence, and perceived humanlikeness. Computers in Human Behavior, 121, 106795.
55. Peplau, L. A., & Perlman, D. (1982). Perspectives on loneliness. In L. A., Perplau & D. Perlman (Eds.), Loneliness: A sourcebook of current theory, research and therapy (pp. 1-20). Hoboken, NJ: Wiley.
56. Reeves, B., & Nass, C. (1996). The media equation: How people treat computers, television, and new media like real people. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.
57. Rheu, Min Jin, Jin, Jeon Eun-Young, & Kim, Jung-Hyun (2017). Building a relationship with a computer agent: Receiving social support and feeling homophily from an empathetic computer agent. Korean Journal of Journalism & Communication Studies, 61(2), 95-123.
58. Rosengren, K. (1974). Uses and gratifications: A paradigm outlined. In J. G. Blumler & E. Katz (Eds.), The uses of mass communication: Current perspectives on gratifications research (pp. 269-286). Beverly Hills, CA: Sage.
59. Rosengren, K., & Windahl, S. (1972). Mass media consumption as a functional alternative. In D. McQuail (Ed.), Sociology of mass communications (pp. 166-194). Middle Sex, UK: Penguin Books.
60. Rubin, K. H., & Rose-Krasnor, L. (1992). Interpersonal problem solving and social competence in children. In V. B. Van Hasselt & M. Hersen (Eds.), Handbook of social development: A lifespan perspective (pp. 283–323). New York: Plenum Press.
61. Rubin, A. M., & Windahl, S. (1986). The uses and dependency model of mass communication. Critical Studies in Media Communication, 3(2), 184-199.
62. Ruppel, E. K., & Burke, T. J. (2015). Complementary channel use and the role of social competence. Journal of Computer-Mediated Communication, 20(1), 37-51.
63. Russell, D. W. (1996). UCLA Loneliness Scale (Version 3): Reliability, validity, and factor structure. Journal of Personality Assessment, 66(1), 20-40.
64. Russell, D., Peplau, L. A., & Cutrona, C. E. (1980). The revised UCLA Loneliness Scale: Concurrent and discriminant validity evidence. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 39(3), 472-480.
65. Sarason, B. R. (1981). The dimensions of social competence: Contributions from a variety of research areas. In J. D. Wine & M. D. Smye (Eds.), Social competence (pp. 100-122). New York: Guilford Press.
66. Segrin, C. (1992). Specifying the nature of social skill deficits associated with depression. Human Communication Research, 19(1), 89-123.
67. Segrin, C., & Flora, J. (2000). Poor social skills are a vulnerability factor in the development of psychosocial problems. Human Communication Research, 26, 489-514.
68. Segrin, C., & Taylor, M. (2007). Positive interpersonal relationships mediate the association between social skills and psychological well-being. Personality and Individual Differences, 43(4), 637-646.
69. Shaw, L. H., & Gant, L. M. (2002). Users divided?: Exploring the gender gap in Internet use. CyberPsychology & Behavior, 5(6), 517-527.
70. Shin, H. I., & Kim, J. (2020). My computer is more thoughtful than you: Loneliness, anthropomorphism and dehumanization. Current Psychology, 39(2), 445-453.
71. Skjuve, M., Følstad, A., Fostervold, K. I., & Brandtzaeg, P. B. (2021). My chatbot companion: A study of human-chatbot relationships. International Journal of Human-Computer Studies, 149, 1-14.
72. Son, Young-Ran & Park, Euna (2010). The effects of self-disclosure, interpersonal relation dispositions on Internet community activity: Focused on Cyworld Mini-homepage. Media, Gender & Culture, 15, 155-194.
73. Spence, S. H., Donovan, C., & Brechman-Toussaint, M. (1999). Social skills, social outcomes, and cognitive features of childhood social phobia. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 108(2), 211-221.
74. Spitzberg, B. H., & Cupach, W. R. (1985). Conversational skill and locus of perception. Journal of Psychopathology and Behavioral Assessment, 7(3), 207-220.
75. Srinivasan, V., & Takayama, L. (2016). Help me please: Robot politeness strategies for soliciting help from humans. Proceedings of the 2016 CHI Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems (pp. 4945-4955). New York: Association for Computing Machinery.
76. Sundar, S. S. (2008). The MAIN model: A heuristic approach to understanding technology effects on credibility. Cambridge, MA: The MIT Press.
77. Valkenburg, P. M., & Peter, J. (2007). Online communication and adolescent well-being: Testing the stimulation versus the displacement hypothesis. Journal of Computer-Mediated Communication, 12(4), 1169-1182.
78. Valkenburg, P. M., & Peter, J. (2008). Adolescents' identity experiments on the Internet: Consequences for social competence and self-concept unity. Communication Research, 35(2), 208-231.
79. Westerman, D., Edwards, A. P., Edwards, C., Luo, Z., & Spence, P. R. (2020). I-it, I-thou, I-robot: The perceived humanness of AI in human-machine communication. Communication Studies, 71(3), 393-408.
80. Widener, A., & Lim, S (2020). Need to belong, privacy concerns and self-disclosure in AI chatbot interaction. Journal of Digital Contents Society, 21(12), 2203-2210.
81. Yang, C. C., & Brown, B. B. (2013). Motives for using Facebook, patterns of Facebook activities, and late adolescents’ social adjustment to college. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 42(3), 403-416.
82. Zakahi, W. R., & Duran, R. L. (1985). Loneliness, communicative competence, and communication apprehension: Extension and replication. Communication Quarterly, 33(1), 50-60.

부록
1. 나은영 (2013). 트위터 이용자의 온라인 자기노출에 영향을 주는 요인들. <한국언론학보>, 22권 4호, 124-148.
2. 박형곤 (2019). AI의 사업적 적용 및 전개. <인더스트리 포커스>. Retrieved 5/28/2021 from https://www2.deloitte.com/content/dam/Deloitte/kr/Documents/technology-media-telecommunications/2019/kr_tmt_issue-highlights_20190625.pdf
3. 변성혁·조창환 (2020). AI 금융 챗봇 추천 메시지의 의인화와 개인화 수준이 고객 반응에 미치는 영향. <한국광고홍보학보>, 22권 2호, 466-502.
4. 손영란·박은아 (2010). 자기노출 및 대인관계성향에 따른 인터넷 커뮤니티 활동의 차이: 싸이월드 미니홈피를 중심으로. <미디어, 젠더 & 문화>, 15호, 155-194.
5. 유민진·진전은영·김정현 (2017). 컴퓨터 에이전트와 관계 맺기: 공감을 표현하는 컴퓨터 에이전트를 통한 동류의식 형성과 사회적 지지의 획득. <한국언론학보>, 61권 2호, 95-123.
6. 장지혜·주다영 (2019). 인공지능 스피커의 정서별 감정발화에 따른 사용성 평가. <한국HCI학회 학술대회>, 705-712.
7. 정부만·민성준·이용한·한유정 (2020). <2019 인터넷이용실태조사>. 세종: 과학기술정보통신부.